All About Dictionaries

Webster’s Dictionary, which is often called Websters Dictionary (the possessive apostrophe is actually more correct) or the Merriam Webster Dictionary, is perhaps one of the best known and most widely used dictionaries in the United States. It was certainly the first American dictionary.

Webster’s Dictionary was first written by Noah Webster, who was born in West Hartford, Connecticut in 1758. Coming of age in the revolutionary era, it is believed that at least part of Webster’s impetus for writing a dictionary was to set forth the code for an American English. A language belonging to the peoples of the United States. According to a biography on Webster at the Merriam Webster site, “He believed fervently in the developing cultural independence of the United States, a chief part of which was to be a distinctive American language with its own idiom, pronunciation, and style.”

Noah Webster published his very first dictionary, A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language, in 1806, at the age of forty-eight.

After publishing A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language, he started working on what was ultimately to become Webster’s Dictionary, a tome entitled An American Dictionary of the English Language. In the course of writing An American Dictionary of the English Language Webster himself learned twenty-six languages, including olde Anglo Saxon English and Sanskrit! He did this as part of his effort to research the origins of the words which were in the contemporary American English lexicon.

Noah Webster’s An American Dictionary of the English Language was published in 1828, when Webster was seventy years old, and twenty-two years after he first published A Compendious Dictionary of the English Language. It contained 70,000 entries, and according to the Merriam Webster company, it “embodied a new standard of lexicography” and “was felt by many to have surpassed Samuel Johnson’s 1755 British masterpiece not only in scope but in authority as well.”

In 1841 Webster published a follow-up, An American Dictionary of the English Language, Corrected and Enlarged, and in 1843 Noah Webster passed away.

Following Noah Webster’s death, brothers George and Charles Merriam, who had opened a printing and bookselling house in Springfield, Massachusetts, purchased all of the unsold copies of his 1841 edition of An American Dictionary of the English Language, Corrected and Enlarged, and also purchased the rights to create revised editions under the imprint Merriam-Webster, which they publish to this day.

Recommended reading:

The Oxford English Dictionary is considered by many to be the grandfather of English dictionaries. Although the Oxford Dictionary is presently published by the University of Oxford Press, this was not originally the case.

The Oxford English Dictionary was originally conceived in the mid-1800s by Richard Trench, Frederick Furnivall, and Herbert Coleridge, all of the British Philological Society. Believing that contemporary dictionaries were not all that they could be, they decided to create a list of all of the words which were not to be found in existing dictionaries. However, in the course of their project, they came to believe that dictionaries were generally deficient in many ways beyond just omitting certain words.

As a result of their findings, it was proposed that a completely new dictionary be compiled, and the Philological Society agreed to compile a A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles.

While all three of the original group were keen to steer their project forward, Richard Trench had taken to a career with the clergy, and was unable to devote the time necessary. Herbert Coleridge thus became the New English Dictionary’s first editor. However before the book could go to press, Coleridge succumbed to tuberculosis at the young age of 31, and thus it fell to Frederick Furnivall to see the project through to completion.

Unfortunately the new dictionary languished under Furnivall’s care, and there it may have stayed, had it not been for fellow Philological Society member James Murray stepping forward and agreeing to take over the project.

In 1879 a deal was struck following negotiations which included, among others, both Furnivall and Murray, and the University of Oxford agreed to publish the new dictionary, with Murray as the editor.

The very first edition, which in fact was only the first part of the dictionary, was published in 1884 with the unlikely and cumbersome title of A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles; Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by The Philological Society. The dictionary continued to be published in parts - 125 in all, and it wasn’t until 1928 that the entire collection of parts, bound as a whole, was published. Prior to that publication, it had been agreed that the name would be changed to the Oxford English Dictionary, it has been known as the Oxford English Dictionary, or just OED, ever since.

In 1989 a much revised and updated edition was published, which became known as OED2. An OED3 is now in the works.

Recommended reading:

The online dictionary is a relatively new phenomena, a natural result of both the advent of the Internet, and the ongoing need to update the content of standard dictionaries. Many dictionary publishing houses now offer a free online dictionary, and even many other types of sites have a dictionary online.

A free online dictionary is of course very convenient - if you have access to a computer when you need a dictionary. On the other hand, there is just nothing like the feeling of hefting a large dictionary in your hand, riffling the thumbtabs, and finding not only the word for which you are looking, but the interesting, hitherto unknown words which surround it.

Online dictionaries come in two forms. There is the dictionary online which is accessible over the Internet, and then the online dictionary which is local to you only, installed on your home or business computer or network. The former is maintained by the dictionary publisher or their agent, and the latter is software which is installed from a CD.

Most online dictionaries, Internet or local, contain all of the same words as their print versions, sometimes even more as new words may be added to the online version before the next print version is published. What they may lack, however, is other sections, such as graphics and tables (some include them, some don’t) or sections with special symbols which may not be readily reproducible in HTML. Many online dictionaries also include an online thesaurus.

Software dictionaries are convenient, but they can take up a lot of space on your hard drive. If you choose to not load them onto your hard drive, than you will need to load the dictionary from CD whenever you want to look up a word, which can be time-consuming.

Some of the more popular online dictionaries on the Internet include the Merriam Webster online dictionary, at M-W.com, and Dictionary.com.

Popular software dictionaries include the Merriam Webster’s dictionary software, which is available for both the PC and MAC, and for the Palm.

Recommended software:

For PC and Mac:

For Palm PDAs:

Slang dictionaries have existed since the early 1960s, and as slang usage has increased and changed over the years, various forms of slang dictionaries have evolved with it. Today, multiple printed slang dictionaries exist in English, covering everything from country-specific slang to complete dictionaries of swear words. In addition, multiple resources abound on the Internet, covering topics as diverse as Internet slang, Singaporean slang, and even “dead” slang languages such as Polari (a mish-mash of languages used primarily by the gay male subculture in Britain in the 1950s and 1960s.)

The Dictionary of American Slang by Robert L. Chapman, first published in 1960, is considered to be the standard printed work for American slang. Now in its third edition, it boasts 19,000 entries covering the history of American slang through the 1990s. It also lists examples of slang usage and often gives information about the groups from which each piece of slang originated.

For people needing greater slang coverage, Cassell’s Dictionary of Slang by Jonathon Green offers over 65,000 entries taken from British and American slang. This dictionary also provides information about slang origins, but has relatively few examples of usage. Published in 2000, this dictionary also covers terms through the 1990s.

Publishing houses known for their standard English dictionaries have also offered slang dictionaries, with less success. Random House, in particular, embarked on the ambitious project of making a three-volume American slang dictionary, with much of the content provided by J.E. Lighter, a linguist from the University of Tennessee. However, due to a disagreement about royalties, Random House pulled the plug on the project after volume two. After several years of limbo, the National Endowment for the Humanities and Oxford University Press stepped up to complete the project, and expects to publish two additional volumes by 2008.

Since 2000, hundreds of new slang terms have come into common usage, among them “blog,” “hollaback girl,” and “random.” Obviously, tracking these mercurial changes in slang is not cost-effective for publishing houses, so online slang dictionaries are the best resources for researching these terms. Most online slang dictionaries are available for editing by anyone, which has both advantages and disadvantages. One advantage is that the slang presented is often authentic, though occasionally differing definitions of the same term appear, reflecting nuances of use. The disadvantage is that many of the entries are less than academic in their treatment of the slang term in question. Some don’t even give a true definition, choosing instead to simply deride users of that term. At first glance, these entries might appear useless, but they do offer something of value in the form of a barometer for which words have fallen out of current usage. See the online Urban Dictionary for examples (http://www.urbandictionary.com/).

Recommended reading (click on the picture for details):

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (AHD), published by Houghton-Mifflin and edited by William Morris, first appeared in 1969. In addition to its extensive lexicon, the American Heritage Dictionary is characterized by essays regarding language usage, spelling, pronunciation, and the history of the English language. A feature unique to the AHD is an appendix of reconstructed Indo-European roots, which gives a glimpse into the etymology of ancient words and the paths they took into English and other European languages.

The AHD appeared as a reaction to the publication of Webster’s Third New International Dictionary in 1961, which created a controversy in academic circles because of its novel approach to compiling content. Webster’s Third included thousands of new terms that were in use in spoken English at the time while leaving out most proper nouns and obsolete words. Most scandalous, and completely out of character with Webster’s Second, was Webster’s Third’s lack of authority regarding word usage, for all labels about accepted uses for specific words were removed.

James Parton, the publisher of American Heritage magazine, was incensed at the permissive use of language advocated by Webster’s Third, and attempted to buy the G. and C. Merriam Company, publisher of Webster’s Third, to correct the error. When he was unable to do so, he approached Houghton-Mifflin about creating a new dictionary and the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language was born. Editor William Morris used a panel of 105 experts to compile the dictionary’s usage statistics.

Unlike Webster’s Third, the AHD made a point of showing how words ought to be used, as well as showing how words were actually being used by the general public. In cases where a word had controversial usage, the AHD listed a specific paragraph about usage after the etymology. In cases where most experts believed that there should be no controversy, the dictionary merely outlined proper and improper usage. In cases where the panel was split about proper usage, the dictionary listed the various uses and included the percentage of panel members who supported each specific use.

The Second Edition of the AHD omitted the Indo-European roots, much to the displeasure of linguists. However, this error was corrected in the Third Edition in 1992, and expanded in 2000 with the Fourth Edition, which included Semitic language materials. The AHD continues to be the preferred collegiate and high school dictionary in American schools.

Recommended reading (click on the picture for details):

Slang, the playful, often irreverent patterns of casual speech, permeates all languages, and further subdivisions of slang exist among users of those languages. In fact, some slang evolves to the point where it is considered to be its own micro-language, complete with usage rules and a distinctive name. Keeping up with slang can be a daunting task. Fortunately, multiple websites exist to help the hapless recipient of slang adjust to new terms and phrases. Chief among these is www.urbandictionary.com, a site devoted entirely to the enumeration of slang terms, updated by the people who use the slang themselves. A visitor to this website can search for any slang term and read dozens of submissions defining that term, some academic in nature and others more colloquial. If the visitor knows of a different meaning for the term, he can submit his own definition, complete with usage example, to benefit other readers.

Slang users in the United Kingdom have their own reference website, http://www.peevish.co.uk/slang/. Not content to let the inmates run the asylum, so to speak, the organizers of this site screen each piece of slang submitted for inclusion, making sure it is actually in common British use before adding it to their lexicon.

The drug and gang subculture in the United States has infused American English a wealth of slang terms, thousands of which are tracked via the Indiana Prevention Resource Center (IPRC) Street Drug Slang Dictionary (www.drugs.indiana.edu/slang/SearchSlang.aspx). Like the British site, this list is tightly controlled, with terms from the IPRC’s own files as well as many additions from the National Drug and Crime Clearinghouse slang term list. This list is an invaluable resource for parents who might suspect their children are using illicit drugs.

The rise of the Internet, chat rooms, and cell phone text messaging has created whole new classes of slang. Fortunately, for the 1337-impaired, the Internet Slang Dictionary (www.noslang.com/dictionary.php) is there. The ISD features an alphabetical list so users can quickly find the meanings to those cryptic abbreviations like “l8r” (later), “afk” (away from keyboard) and “1337″ (elite). This database seems to be international, featuring abbreviations like “aicmfp,” meaning “And I claim my five pounds.” This database is policed by the website administrators, so only Internet slang that is properly listed gets through.

Finally, Wiktionary (www.wiktionary.org) is an excellent source for slang information, and a good compromise between the unbridled anarchy of the Urban Dictionary and the suppressive rule of the Street Drug Slang Dictionary. Like the Urban Dictionary, Wiktionary is edited by users, but it is also policed by users. The level of professionalism in all of the Wikimedia (www.wikimedia.org) projects is very high, and statistics show that errors and vandalism are usually fixed by other users within minutes.

Keeping up with changes in slang may not be an easy task, but with online tools such as these available, the average person at least has a chance to stay current.

Recommended reading (click on the picture for details):

Don’t be intimidated by online medical dictionaries. You can use a free online medical dictionary in exactly the same way as you’d use your Merriam-Webster or Oxford English dictionary. It can be an exciting journey into the unknown or a simple tool to satisfy your curiosity.

There is no shortage of free online medical dictionaries and while they all provide the same basic function — what exactly does this medical term mean — the variety of extra links to useful information depends upon the site’s sponsor.

Checking medical terms is, for the most part, easy. If you know the spelling, use the site’s built-in search function to look up the meaning of the medical term. If you’re not sure of the spelling, some sites allow you to type the first few letters of the word, followed by an asterisk (*). And if you still can’t find the correct term, many sites will allow you to click on a letter to see a list of medical terms beginning with that letter. Each of the alphabetized terms links to a medical definition. This is obviously a more tedious method, but the results can justify the journey. Often, the first explanation of the medical term you seek to clarify will refer you to further explanations of its individual terms. This gathering of supporting information is known as “drilling down.”

Online medical dictionaries often provide other hyperlinks to useful information and tips on news and views, diseases and conditions, symptoms and signs, procedures and tests, drug information, health topics, and various medications. Some sites offer links to an encyclopedia of articles on diseases, tests, symptoms, injuries and surgeries. Some online dictionaries even offer links to discount medical prescriptions and advice on topics that can range from how to stop smoking to improving sexual health.

While online medical dictionaries are fast and informative, it is strongly recommended, however, that you use one only to clarify the meaning of a medical term, not as do-it-yourself diagnosis. If you feel unwell or need to check on a symptom, contact your doctor.

Recommended reading (click on the picture for details):

Recommended software (click on the picture for details):

With Spanish being the second most common language used in the United States, citizens who use English as their native language and Spanish as a second language often need a reference work to help them translate from one language to another. Whether attempting to express a known English concept in Spanish or finding out the meaning of an unfamiliar Spanish word, the tool to help bilingual speakers is a Spanish-English dictionary.

Spanish to English dictionaries come in various forms, from small pocket editions to unabridged hardback tomes, and the prices vary accordingly. When purchasing one, it is important to determine the primary need of the purchaser. For instance, is this to be a travel dictionary to use on vacation in Spain? If so, a small, portable dictionary that specifically lists Castilian dialect uses (Castellano) would be appropriate. Is the dictionary to be used for academic purposes, as in an advanced college Spanish class? A larger, unabridged Spanish dictionary might fit the bill here.

Most Spanish-English dictionaries have conjugations of verb forms and lists of Spanish verbs, and all designate the gender of nouns. This is very important for English speakers who are not used to dealing with inflectional endings. Spanish, like other European languages, assigns different suffixes and definite articles to nouns based on the noun’s gender. English, on the other hand, basically ignores the concept of gender as related to nouns. For example, any English noun can be preceded by the word “the,” as in “the boy” or “the girl.” In Spanish, “the girl” is “la muchacha,” because “muchacha” is a feminine noun. However, “the boy” is translated as “el muchacho,” a masculine noun. Though the root for both Spanish words is the same, the inflectional ending and the definite article both change to reflect the gender.

Another important consideration when choosing a Spanish-English dictionary is profane content. Some dictionaries list all words that are considered profane or obscene in both languages. Other dictionaries, particularly those designed for young students, leave all obscene terms out. Arguments exist for both approaches, and though it might seem easy to choose between profane and pristine, there are cultural and dialectical concerns that come into play. For example, “coger” is a perfectly valid word meaning “to take” in Castellano, but in Latin America and the American Southwest, it has a much more vulgar meaning associated with copulation. For this reason, it might be best to choose a dictionary that includes obscene terms, but clearly marks them as such to allow the user to avoid embarrassing improper usage.

As we have seen, when choosing a Spanish-English dictionary, the purchaser should take into account several important factors. Fortunately, with hundreds of Spanish-English dictionaries on the market, there is something out there to suit everyone’s needs.

Recommended reading (click on the picture for details):

Recommended carrying (click on the picture for details):

The Urban Dictionary (founded in 2003) is one of the virtual world’s answers to two challenging realities: a fast moving national (or perhaps planetary) lexicon and the growing demand of users to be part of a word’s definition process.

The Urban Dictionary is a street slang dictionary that allows users to provide, define and even debate what a given contemporary work or idea means. It promotes fairly standard definition formats as well as humorous and in many instances vulgar personalized presentations of what the concept means in practice. The Urban Dictionary is clearly intended to capture a word in its evolutionary action - just as it might actually be used on the streets, across the nation or in your child’s conversation.

Users can access the site’s database by searching for particular words or concepts or by clicking on tabs in the alphabet. However, using the tabs can be challenging since capturing the language as it is being used does not necessarily conform to traditional rules or expectations, such as those presented in an Oxford English Dictionary, for example.

Thus, when a user seeks to look up a word or phrase (such as “cool person”) he or she may find generic descriptions of cool in a variety of manifestations, often times highly personalized or graphic. For example, an actual search for “cool person” turned up various usages as well as concepts such as “Person C” (a third character of a fictional presentation of personality styles who is deemed “cool”) or “Tre Cool,” a drummer from a particular band.

The idea behind the UD is grounded in the concept of Open Source (or Wiki) technology. Open Source ideas were first introduced by early software programmers who sought to test programming language by making it freely available to other “experts” (formal and informal) with the idea of working out the bugs. It assumed that by turning over this technical language to the masses of democratic experts, a more realistic, user-friendly technology project would result.

One of the most well known and widely praised of the evolution of this idea is the Wikipedia (http://en.wikipedia.org), an online virtual encyclopedia started in 2001 that currently has 800,000 articles provided through public participation. A Wiktionary (http://wiktionary.org) is also under development with over 100,000 entries to date.

The UD is defined as being “infectious.” The dictionary grows more accurate, they say, and more addictive, with hundreds of new definitions being added every day. According to their site’s promotions, UrbanDictionary.com has in excess of 140,000 daily users, most of who are male (53%), from North America (75%) and under the age of 35 (82%). Like other online sites, this resource maintains instantaneous audience assessments of its users and demographics to promote acceptance, convenience for the media and profitability for advertisers.

The number of words and definitions grows every day. Static and active banners on the front page demonstrate promotional definitions using terms that are included.

In November 2005 the printed version of the Urban Dictionary became available, self-defined as being a “fularious� resource that presents some 2000 of their “funniest, smartest, crunkest defs.�

Recommended reading (click on the picture for details):